The Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization)

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilization after its type-site Harappa (discovered first in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni), was a Bronze Age civilization in the northwestern regions of South Asia. It flourished in the basins of the Indus River and the now-dried up Sarasvati River. At its peak (the Mature Harappan phase, c. 2600 BCE - 1900 BCE), it covered a vast area extending from Sutkagen Dor in Balochistan (west) to Alamgirpur in UP (east), and Manda in J&K (north) to Daimabad in Maharashtra (south).

1. Town Planning: The Hallmark of the IVC

The most striking feature of the Harappan civilization is its sophisticated and uniform system of town planning, which remained unparalleled in the ancient world. The urban centers demonstrated a remarkable degree of standardization and civic administration.

Key Features of Town Planning:

1. The Grid System:

• The streets and lanes cut across one another almost at right angles, dividing the city into several rectangular or square blocks.
• The main streets were exceptionally wide (up to 10 meters) and largely unpaved but well-maintained.

2. The Citadel and the Lower Town:

• Most large Harappan cities (like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Kalibangan) were divided into two main parts in terms of layout:
  • The Citadel (Raised Area): Located on the western side on an artificially raised platform of mud bricks. It contained important public buildings like the Great Bath, granaries, and assembly halls. It was presumably occupied by the ruling class or priests.
  • The Lower Town: Located on the eastern side, it was much larger and contained residential buildings where the common people (merchants, craftsmen, laborers) lived.
• Exception: Dholavira (in Gujarat) was uniquely divided into three parts: the citadel, a middle town, and a lower town.

3. Use of Burnt Bricks:

• The unprecedented and widespread use of burnt (baked) bricks in construction is a defining feature. The bricks had a remarkably uniform ratio of 4:2:1 (Length:Width:Thickness) across the entire civilization.
• Stone buildings were practically absent (except in Dholavira, where stone was extensively used alongside bricks).

4. Drainage System:

• The IVC boasted an excellent closed drainage system. Every house, large or small, had its own courtyard and bathroom. Water flowed from houses into street drains.
• These street drains were covered with bricks or stone slabs and were equipped with manholes at regular intervals for cleaning. Soaked pits were also found.

2. Harappan Society and Economy

Agriculture and Diet

• Crops: The Harappans cultivated wheat and barley as their staple food. Other crops included peas, sesame, mustard, and cotton. They were the earliest people in the world to produce cotton. Rice was rare, though husks have been found at Lothal and Rangpur.
• Irrigation: They relied on the annual flooding of the Indus river. Traces of canals have been found at Shortughai in Afghanistan. Water reservoirs (like the massive one at Dholavira) were used for water harvesting.
• Domestication: Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and pigs were domesticated. The humped bull was highly revered. Horses were generally not known to the Harappans (though remains are controversially claimed at Surkotada).

Trade and Commerce

• Trade was a major pillar of the urban economy. They conducted both internal (within the subcontinent) and external (overseas) trade.
• External Trade: There is abundant evidence of a flourishing trade network with Mesopotamia (Sumeria). The Mesopotamian texts mention trade with regions named Dilmun (Bahrain), Makan (Makran coast), and Meluhha, which refers to the Indus region.
• Exports: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, certain beads (from Chanhudaro/Lothal), ivory products, and copper.
• Imports: Gold (from Kolar, Karnataka), Silver (from Afghanistan/Iran), Copper (from Khetri mines, Rajasthan, and Oman), Lapis Lazuli (from Badakhshan, Afghanistan).
• Currency: Barter system was the primary medium of exchange. Coinage was unknown. Standardized weights and measures made of chert, typically cubical in shape and following a binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16...) in lower denominations, regulated trade.

Social Hierarchy and Religion

• While no palaces or monumental temples have been found, the segregation of the town (Citadel vs Lower Town) implies some form of social stratification or ruling authority, possibly a class of merchants or priests.
• Religious Beliefs:
  • Mother Goddess: Widespread worship of a female deity, likely fertility goddesses, evidenced by numerous terracotta figurines.
  • Pashupati Mahadeva: Famous seal found at Mohenjo-Daro showing a three-faced male figure sitting in a yogic posture, surrounded by an elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo, with two deer at his feet. Sir John Marshall identified this as a proto-Shiva.
  • Nature Worship: Evidence of tree worship (Peepal tree was sacred), animal worship (humped bull, unicorn), and fire worship (fire altars found at Kalibangan and Lothal).
  • Burial Practices: The dead were generally buried (inhumation) in a north-south orientation with their head towards the north. Extended burials were common, often accompanied by grave goods like pottery and ornaments, indicating a belief in life after death.