Natural Resources of India: Land, Water & Energy

1. Land Resources

Classification of Land Use in India

India's total geographical area is approximately 328.7 million hectares. Land use data is collected and maintained by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare.

Categories of Land Use:

• Forest Land: Area under forest cover as per the Forest Department records. India aims to have 33% of its geographical area under forest cover (currently ~24%).
• Land Not Available for Cultivation: Includes barren and unculturable land, and land put to non-agricultural uses (buildings, roads, industries). This has been increasing due to rapid urbanisation and industrialisation.
• Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Shrinking due to encroachments and degradation. Insufficient for the livestock population.
• Land under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves: Land not included in net sown area, used for orchards, bamboo, etc.
• Culturable Wastelands: Land available for cultivation but not yet cultivated. Includes ravines, waterlogged areas, scrublands. Has reclamation potential.
• Fallow Lands: Current fallow (not cultivated in the current year), and other fallow (land left fallow for up to 5 years). Indicates inefficient land use.
• Net Sown Area (NSA): The actual area sown. About 141 million hectares (~43% of total area). India has one of the largest net sown areas in the world.
• Gross Cropped Area (GCA): NSA + area sown more than once in a year.

Land Degradation

A major challenge in India. About 120 million hectares of land suffers from various forms of degradation:

• Water Erosion: The most widespread form. Huge quantities of topsoil are lost through runoff, especially in the Deccan Plateau, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and the hilly regions.
• Wind Erosion: Primarily in arid and semi-arid regions — Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana.
• Waterlogging and Soil Salinity/Alkalinity: Caused by over-irrigation (especially canal irrigation without proper drainage). Problem in UP, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan.
• Shifting Cultivation (Jhum): In Northeast India, causes deforestation and degradation.
• Mining and Industrial Activities: Open-cast mining creates large craters and dumps waste on surrounding land.

Land Reforms (Brief)

• Abolition of Zamindari system, land ceiling acts, tenancy reforms, consolidation of land holdings, and redistribution of surplus land were major reforms post-independence.

2. Surface and Ground Water Resources

Surface Water

India is a water-rich country in terms of average annual rainfall and river flow, but distribution is highly uneven.

• Average Annual Rainfall: About 1,170 mm. Highly variable — from over 11,000 mm in Mawsynram (Meghalaya) to less than 100 mm in Jaisalmer (Rajasthan).
• Annual Runoff Potential: About 1,869 billion cubic meters (BCM) from rivers and glaciers.
• Utilizable Surface Water: Only about 690 BCM due to topographic and other constraints.
• Major River Basins: The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin is the largest, accounting for about 60% of the total river flow of India.
• Challenges: Pollution of rivers (Ganga, Yamuna, Cooum), siltation of reservoirs, and uneven spatial distribution remain critical issues.

Ground Water

• India's total replenishable groundwater resource is about 432 BCM per year.
• The Indo-Gangetic Plain is the largest groundwater reservoir in the world.
• Over-Exploitation: Several regions — Punjab, Haryana, parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu — have critically over-exploited groundwater, leading to a falling water table.
• Causes of Over-Exploitation: Subsidized electricity for pumps, poor scheduling of canal water, water-intensive crop patterns (paddy, sugarcane).
• Major Initiatives:
  • Atal Bhujal Yojana: For sustainable groundwater management in water-stressed areas.
  • Jal Shakti Abhiyan: For water conservation and rainwater harvesting.
  • Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): "More Crop per Drop".

Watershed Management

• A watershed is a land area that drains into a particular watercourse (stream, river, or lake). Managing land and water resources within a watershed to ensure sustainability.
• Key principles: check dams, contour bunding, farm ponds, afforestation, soil moisture conservation.

3. Energy Resources

Conventional (Commercial) Energy Sources

Coal

• India is the 3rd largest producer and consumer of coal in the world.
• India has about 361 billion tonnes of coal reserves (5th largest in the world).
• Over 80% of coal production is from Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.
• Types of Coal: Anthracite (highest quality, scarce), Bituminous (most abundant, used for power and coke), Lignite (low quality, found in Tamil Nadu - Neyveli).
• Major Coalfields: Jharia (Jharkhand – largest & richest), Raniganj (West Bengal – oldest), Singrauli (MP & UP), Korba (Chhattisgarh).

Petroleum and Natural Gas

• India has limited oil and gas reserves relative to demand, making it heavily import-dependent.
• Major Producing Areas: Mumbai High (off the west coast, largest offshore), Assam-Arakan region (oldest), Cambay basin (Gujarat – Ankleshwar, Kalol), Krishna-Godavari basin (Ravva field), Rajasthan fields (Cairn field, Barmer).
• KG Basin (Krishna-Godavari): Holds significant natural gas reserves, including the Dhirubhai-1 field operated by Reliance.
  
• Challenges: Heavy import dependency (~85% of crude oil needs), volatility of global prices.

Hydropower

• India has an estimated hydropower potential of about 1,45,320 MW, of which only about 46,000 MW has been harnessed.
• Major Projects: Bhakra Nangal (Sutlej – Punjab/HP), Hirakud (Mahanadi – Odisha), Damodar Valley (DVC), Nagarjuna Sagar (Krishna – AP), Sardar Sarovar (Narmada – Gujarat), Tehri Dam (Bhagirathi – Uttarakhand).

Non-Conventional (Renewable) Energy Sources

Solar Energy

• India has enormous solar potential, especially the Thar Desert region (Rajasthan, Gujarat) receiving over 300 sunny days per year.
• National Solar Mission (NSM): Launched in 2010 under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). Targets: 100 GW by 2022 (revised to 300 GW by 2030).
• Major solar parks: Bhadla Solar Park (Rajasthan – one of the world's largest), Pavagada Solar Park (Karnataka), Rewa Ultra Mega Solar Park (MP).

Wind Energy

• India is the 4th largest wind energy producer globally.
• Major wind energy states: Tamil Nadu (Muppandal), Gujarat (Kutch), Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.
• Potential: About 302 GW onshore and large offshore potential.

Nuclear Energy

• India operates nuclear power plants under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).
• Major Plants: Tarapur (Maharashtra – first, uses imported uranium), Rawatbhata (KAPP, Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (MAPS, Tamil Nadu – India's first fast breeder test reactor FBR), Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu – Russia collaboration), Kaiga (Karnataka), Narora (UP), Kakrapar (KAPS, Gujarat).
• Three-Stage Nuclear Programme: Proposed by Homi Bhabha:
  1. Stage 1: Use natural uranium fuel in Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR).
  2. Stage 2: Use plutonium (produced in Stage 1) in Fast Breeder Reactors (FBR).
  3. Stage 3: Use thorium (India has vast thorium reserves in Kerala) to produce U-233 for fuel.

Other Renewables

• Biomass/Biogas: Widely used, especially in rural areas. National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP).
• Tidal/Wave Energy: India has significant potential (Gujarat - Gulf of Khambhat; Sundarbans).
• Geothermal: Limited but available at Puga Valley (Ladakh), Manikaran (HP).

The Energy Crisis

• India faces a significant gap between energy demand and supply.
• Causes:
  • Rapid population and economic growth increasing demand.
  • Dependence on fossil fuels (coal ~70% of electricity generation).
  • Inefficient energy use and distribution losses.
  • Import dependency for oil, natural gas, and even some coal grades.
  • Slow development of renewable energy infrastructure.
  • Cross-subsidisation leading to financial stress on utilities.
• Solutions:
  • Accelerating renewable energy deployment (India: 500 GW non-fossil target by 2030).
  • Energy efficiency improvements (BEE, PAT Scheme – Perform, Achieve and Trade).
  • Promoting electric vehicles (FAME scheme).
  • Developing smarter grids and energy storage.
  • Nuclear energy expansion.
  • International energy cooperation (ISA – International Solar Alliance, headquartered in Gurugram).