Early History of South India

1. The Megalithic Background

Before the emergence of full-fledged historical kingdoms, large parts of South India (Maharashtra, Deccan, and the far south) were inhabited by people associated with the Megalithic Culture. "Megaliths" (Mega = great; lith = stone) are massive stone structures used primarily as burials or memorial monuments for the dead.

• Megalithic builders were predominantly use iron tools and weapons (like arrows, spearheads, sickles).
• Their distinctive characteristic pottery was Black and Red Ware (BRW).
• The burial sites were rich in grave goods, indicating a strong belief in the afterlife.

2. The Sangam Age (c. 3rd Century BCE - 3rd Century CE)

The period roughly between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE in South India (the area lying south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers) is celebrated as the Sangam Age. It represents the dawn of historical records in the region.

What is "Sangam"? According to Tamil legends, a "Sangam" was an academy or assembly of Tamil poets held under the generous royal patronage of the Pandyan kings in Madurai. It is believed three such massive Sangams were held, but only the literature from the third one has survived to the present day.

The Three Early Kingdoms (Muvendar)

During this period, the deep south was ruled by three principal dynasties, collectively called Muvendar. They were constantly at war with one another for hegemony.

1. The Cheras (Kerala/Central Tamil Nadu):

• Capital: Vanji (or Karur).
• Important Port: Muziris (a massive center for trade with the Roman Empire, especially in black pepper).
• Emblem: The Bow and Arrow.
• Greatest King: Senguttuvan (the Red Chera). He is famously credited with introducing the intensely popular Pattini cult (worship of Kannagi as the ideal, chaste wife).

2. The Cholas (Northern/Central Tamil Nadu):

• Occupied the incredibly fertile Kaveri delta region (Cholamandalam).
• Capital: Uraiyur (famous for cotton trade), later shifted to the massive port city of Puhar (Kaveripattinam).
• Emblem: The Tiger.
• Greatest King: Karikala. He is celebrated for a massive victory at the Battle of Venni and for constructing an enormous embankment along the Kaveri river (the grand anicut/Kallanai dam).

3. The Pandyas (Southern Tamil Nadu):

• Occupied the southernmost tip.
• Capital: Madurai.
• Important Port: Korkai (world-famous for the incredibly lucrative pearl fishery).
• Emblem: The Fish (Carp).
• They famously patronized the historic Tamil Sangams.

Society and Economy in the Sangam Age

• Economy: Agriculture was dominant. However, the most striking feature was the fabulously wealthy internal and external maritime trade, especially with the Roman Empire. India wildly exported huge quantities of spices (Black pepper was highly prized and called Yavanapriya), pearls, ivory, and fine muslin cloth, while importing massive quantities of Roman gold and silver coins, wine, and glass.
• Society: The Varna system was not strictly established yet. Society was dynamically organized into five distinct ecological/occupational zones called Thinais (Kurinji-hills/hunters; Mullai-forest/herders; Marutam-agriculture/farmers; Neytal-coast/fishers; Palai-desert/robbers).
• Women were deeply respected, and female poets like Avvaiyar actively participated in the Sangams. However, the tragic practice of Sati was also known.

Sangam Literature

• Tolkappiyam: Authored by Tolkappiyar (from the 2nd Sangam), it is the oldest surviving Tamil grammar and poetics text.
• Silappadikaram (The Jeweled Anklet): A magnificent tragedy epic written by Ilango Adigal. It movingly details the tragic love story of Kovalan, his wife Kannagi, and the courtesan Madhavi.
• Manimekalai: Written by Sattanar. It is essentially the sequel to Silappadikaram, detailing the deeply Buddhist adventures of Madhavi and Kovalan's daughter.
• Tirukkural: Authored by the great sage Thiruvalluvar, it is considered the supreme masterpiece of Tamil literature, deeply encompassing ethics, statecraft, and love.