Revolt of 1857: First War of Independence

The Revolt of 1857 was the most widespread and powerful uprising against British rule in India. It has been variously termed the Sepoy Mutiny (by British historians like Lawrence and Seeley), the First War of Indian Independence (by V.D. Savarkar in his 1909 book), and a National Rising (by Benjamin Disraeli).

Political Causes:

• Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie, 1848–56): States with no natural heir were annexed — Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), Awadh (1856). This created intense resentment among Indian rulers.
• Subsidiary Alliance System (Lord Wellesley): Indian states surrendered their foreign policy and military to the British in exchange for protection.
• Annexation of Awadh (1856): Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was deposed on charges of "misgovernance" — this was widely seen as unjust and caused massive resentment in the Bengal Army (largely recruited from Awadh).
• Removal of the Mughal Emperor's title — Bahadur Shah Zafar was told his successors would not be recognized as kings.

Economic Causes:

• Destruction of Indian handicraft industries — particularly textiles — due to cheap British manufactured goods flooding the market.
• Heavy taxation and exploitation of farmers: The Permanent Settlement (1793) created zamindars who extracted maximum rent; ryotwari and mahalwari settlements also burdened peasants.
• Drain of Wealth: India's resources were systematically transferred to Britain — raw materials exported cheaply, finished goods imported expensively.
• Indigo Plantation System — peasants forced to grow indigo at below-market prices for British planters.

Social and Religious Causes:

• Interference with Indian social customs — the British banned sati (1829), female infanticide, and allowed widow remarriage (1856).
• Christian missionary activities — perceived threat to Hinduism and Islam.
• Social reforms were seen by many as a threat to their religion and social order.
• Racial discrimination — Indians were treated as inferior; no Indian could hold high civil or military office.

Military Causes:

• Indian soldiers (sepoys) were paid lower salaries than European soldiers and had limited promotion prospects.
• The General Service Enlistment Act (1856) required soldiers to serve overseas (crossing the ocean was taboo for high-caste Hindus — "kala pani").
• Indian soldiers outnumbered British troops: 2,38,000 Indian soldiers vs. 45,000 British troops in 1857.

Immediate Cause — The Greased Cartridges:

• The Enfield rifle introduced in 1856 used cartridges greased with cow and pig fat.
• Soldiers had to bite off the tip of the cartridge before loading — offensive to both Hindu (cow) and Muslim (pig) soldiers.
• Despite British attempts to address concerns, the rumor spread rapidly and was the spark that ignited the revolt.

Chronology of Events:

• 29 March 1857: Mangal Pandey, a sepoy of the 34th Regiment at Barrackpore (near Calcutta), attacked his superior officer. He was arrested and hanged on 8 April 1857.
• 10 May 1857: Sepoys at Meerut (85th Native Infantry, 11th Cavalry) broke out of jail, killed British officers, marched to Delhi overnight, and proclaimed Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II as their leader.
• 11–12 May 1857: Delhi fell to the rebels — Bahadur Shah Zafar became the nominal head of the revolt.

Major Centres and Leaders:

Areas that did NOT join the revolt:

• Punjab, Sind, Rajputana, most of South India.
• Sikh soldiers in Punjab actively helped the British (Sikhs had reason to resent Maratha/Mughal power, not British).
• John Lawrence (Punjab) and Salar Jung (Hyderabad) remained loyal to British.

Suppression of the Revolt:

• The British used overwhelming military force, strategic railways, and telegraph lines to coordinate and defeat the revolt.
• Key British commanders: John Nicholson (Delhi), Henry Havelock (Kanpur relief), Colin Campbell (C-in-C), Hugh Rose (Central India — defeated Rani Lakshmibai at Gwalior).
• By mid-1858, the revolt was effectively crushed in most areas. The last embers died out in 1859.

Reasons for Failure:

1. Leadership vacuum — no central leader; Bahadur Shah Zafar was too old and unwilling; various leaders acted independently.
2. Limited geographical spread — large parts of India (Punjab, South India, Bengal Bengal proper, most of Rajputana) did not participate.
3. Class character — educated Indians (zamindars, merchants, new educated class) largely stood aside or supported British.
4. Superior British arms and organization — better weapons, disciplined forces, use of telegraph and railways.
5. No popular ideology — the revolt lacked a unifying national ideology; different sections had different grievances.

Summary: Consequences of 1857:

A. End of the East India Company:

• The Government of India Act, 1858 dissolved the EIC and transferred power to the British Crown.
• India came under direct British Parliament control.
• A Secretary of State for India (in the British Cabinet, with a Council of 15 members) replaced the Board of Control and Court of Directors.
• A Viceroy replaced the Governor-General (Lord Canning became the first Viceroy).

B. Army Reorganization (Peel Commission, 1859):

• Ratio of British to Indian troops increased: Europeans-Indians ratio was fixed at 1:2 in Bengal and 1:3 in Madras and Bombay (earlier it was 1:5–6).
• Regiments based on communities susceptible to revolt (Bengal Army infantry) reduced; "Martial Races" theory promoted — Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pathans preferred.
• Artillery kept exclusively in European hands.

C. Racial Policies & Doctrine of Lapse Ended:

• Queen Victoria's Proclamation (November 1, 1858): Promised:
  • Non-interference in Indian religion and social practices.
  • Equal opportunities for Indians and Europeans.
  • Respect for rights of Indian princes (Doctrine of Lapse was implicitly abandoned).
  • Promised amnesty to all rebels except those who had murdered Europeans.

Interpretations of the 1857 Revolt:

• British View (Seeley, Malleson): "Sepoy Mutiny" — a mere military mutiny with no national character.
• Nationalist View (V.D. Savarkar, 1909): "First War of Indian Independence."
• Marxist View (S.N. Sen): Revolt started as a Sepoy Mutiny but became a popular revolt — however, it cannot be called a national independence movement as it lacked bourgeois-democratic ideology.
• R.C. Majumdar: Agreed with the British — it was not a war of national independence.
• Bipin Chandra: It was essentially a peasant and feudal revolt against British imperialism, though not a fully national struggle (as the bourgeoisie and intelligentsia did not join).